State of the Environment Report 2007
The fisheries sector includes the harvesting of fish and other marine organisms from marine or inland waters for consumption. It includes the harvesting of natural stocks and organisms artificially grown in inland waters and marine farms (e.g. pearling, aquaculture). Western Australia's unique oceanography determines the productivity and diversity of species. The Leeuwin Current transports warm, nutrient-poor tropical water southwards along the continental shelf and heavily influences coastal waters. As a consequence, WA's oceanic waters are relatively unproductive and nutrient-deficient when compared with the west coasts of other continents. Benthic primary producers (namely seagrasses and algae) predominate, whereas in many other marine systems phytoplankton are the major primary producers.
By world standards WA's take of seafood in terms of tonnage is very small, amounting to less than 0.4% of the world catch by weight (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 2005b). Western Australia's catch of all species for 2002-03 was slightly less than 34 000 tonnes; in 2002-03 it constituted less than 14% of the total weight of seafood taken in Australian waters (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 2005b). However, despite the relatively small catch, the State's fisheries are economically significant, contributing 25% of the total value of Australia's fisheries (Department of Fisheries, 2005a). Commercial wild-caught fisheries and aquaculture are now established throughout the State and directly contribute between $500 and $750 million to WA's economy each year.
Recreational fishing is a popular activity that involves about 34% of the State's population and an increasing number of tourists. Along with aquatic ecotourism, it contributes $500 million in annual economic activity to WA, and is important to regional economies. Marine farming of South Sea Pearls is the longest established, largest and most successful marine aquaculture industry in WA. There were 16 pearling licensees in 2003 in an industry valued at $120.5 million. Other WA aquaculture activities include the marine farming of pearls (other than South Sea), beta carotene production from salt fields, and mussel, oyster, barramundi, trout, marron and yabby farming. Generally these are relatively small aquaculture businesses valued at $6.5 million in 2003-04 (Department of Fisheries, 2005a).
The State Sustainability Strategy outlines a vision for our natural resources by ensuring that they are '... conserved, protected, managed and used sustainably for the common good' (Government of Western Australia, 2003a, p. 108). The environmental objectives for good fisheries management are set out in a number of international standards and guidelines (e.g. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982; Food and Agriculture Organisation Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries; Reykjavik Declaration on Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem 2001) as well as in National and State legislation. The key objectives for fisheries management in Western Australia are:
Sustainability indicators for the fisheries sector are still in development. However, interim measures examine criteria for adequate breeding stocks and acceptable catch (or effort) levels. Both criteria are needed to sustain a fishery for the long term. The number of fisheries under formal management plans is slowly growing over time and in 2005-06, 35 fisheries were reviewed. About two-thirds of fisheries were assessed by Department of Fisheries as being sustainable, having both adequate breeding stock and acceptable catch levels (Table TS4.1). Unfortunately, information was not available for 17% of fisheries to assess both criteria.
The focus of fisheries management has broadened in recent years, from managing stock levels, to also considering the wider ecological impacts of fisheries. Since January 2002, all Commonwealth Government managed fisheries and state export fisheries are subject to an independent assessment under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth). An assessment is conducted by the Department of the Environment and Heritage against the Guidelines for the Ecologically Sustainable Management of Fisheries (Environment Australia, 2001a). This assessment determines if fisheries are being managed in an ecologically sustainable way and promotes continuous improvement in environmental performance. It takes into account effects on habitats, marine communities and ecological interactions, as well as bycatch and undesirable impacts on endangered and protected species. Through this process the department assesses the management arrangements in place to ensure the ecologically sustainable management of the fishery. The assessment process is limited to Commonwealth and State fisheries that export their catch; there is currently no ecological assessment of minor domestic fisheries or recreational fishing, although this is planned for the future.
Traditionally, fisheries management has focused on managing a fishery so that the catch of fish does not exceed the maximum sustainable yield, i.e. sufficient numbers of fish should remain within the population to ensure ongoing breeding success and the maintenance of fish stocks at the desired level. A more recent recommended approach to measuring fishery sustainability has been to use assessment of breeding stock together with trends in catch and fishing activity.
In total, WA has 35 managed commercial fisheries, with an additional 15 under other forms of management arrangement (overseen by the Department of Fisheries under the Fish Resources Management Act 1994). Of the 35 fisheries reviewed, 94% had breeding stock assessments available for major species. Insufficient data was available for the remainder but catch histories indicate that harvested stocks are relatively stable using a precautionary approach. Of assessed fisheries, 88% had adequate breeding stocks in 2005-06 (Figure TS4.1). Fisheries with inadequate or uncertain breeding stocks include the Shark Bay snapper fishery, northern shark fishery, the southern and west coast demersal gillnet and longline fishery (southern shark), and the south coast crustacean fishery (Department of Fisheries, 2006). Trends in the level of adequate breeding stocks have been similar in recent years, but higher compared to the late 1990s (Figure TS4.1).
![Figure TS4.1: Per cent of fisheries where breeding stocks of the major target species are both assessed and adequate to ensure catches are sustained at maximum levels within the range expected under typical environmental conditions. [Data source: Department of Fisheries, 2006.]](/site/files/images/Figure-TS4.1_Large.jpg)
A target catch or fishing effort (limits on fishing, gear, or number of operators) is determined for each of the fisheries. This indicator provides an assessment of the success of management plans and regulatory activities in keeping fish catches from each of the managed stocks at appropriate levels. When the plan is operating effectively, the catch by the fishery should fall within a projected range. The catch range reflects the variability of environmental conditions that influence the recruitment of juvenile fish that can't be controlled by a management plan. Some fisheries are quota based, which restrict the volume of harvested stock. If quotas are not met, it may indicate insufficient industry activity or that the abundance of stock is significantly lower than when the quota was set.
Comparisons of the catch or effort level were available for 30 of the 35 fisheries in 2005-06. Inadequate data were available for some fisheries, but others (such as the pilchards fisheries) were recovering from exotic viruses and rebuilding stock levels. Of the four fisheries with catch quotas, 3 (75%) operated within their catch targets and one (the Shark Bay snapper fishery) exceeded its target and requires a review. Of the 26 effort controlled fisheries, 21 (81%) had catches that were within acceptable limits of their catch targets. Five fisheries (19%) exceeded their allowable catch targets including the northern shark fishery, Pilbara trap and line, northern demersal scalefish fishery, south coast crustacean and the Cockburn Sound crab fisheries (Department of Fisheries, 2006). In summary, 80% of assessed fisheries were considered to have acceptable catch levels (Figure TS4.2). Trends in the acceptability of the catch or effort level appear to be declining (Figure TS4.2).
![Figure TS4.2: Per cent of fisheries where the catch or effort reported is acceptable relevant to the target management range being applied. [Data source: Department of Fisheries, 2006.]](/site/files/images/Figure-TS4.2_Large.jpg)
Over-fishing may result in the fish caught being less than optimal size and may also result in the average number of recruits declining due to insufficient parental biomass. Alternatively, the targeted removal of a particular size of animals can affect the overall health of the ecosystem. Whole of ecosystem requirements have been implemented in the Southern and Western purse seine fisheries because other animals (such as seabirds and sharks) are dependent on the same size or class of fish that humans take. This reflects a broadened approach to fisheries management, by considering the wider ecological impacts.
Both current breeding stock assessment and current catch levels are needed in the context of assessing the sustainability of a fishery (Table TS4.2). About 66% (23 out of 35) of WA managed commercial fisheries are known to be currently sustainable, having both adequate breeding stock and acceptable catch levels. About 17% of fisheries have insufficient information to assess either one or both criteria. Another 17% of fisheries do not meet one or both criteria. About 8-9% of fisheries were considered to be unsustainable in 2005-06 (did not meet both criteria), including the Shark Bay snapper fishery, the northern shark fishery, and the south coast crustacean fishery. Management of these fisheries (amongst others) are under priority review.
Recreational fishing has grown over the past decades as the State's population and economy expanded. About 600 000 people now fish in WA waters, compared to 284 000 in 1987. However, fish stocks on which recreational fishing is based are finite. In WA fishing effort is highest in the more heavily populated south of the State, from Port Gregory to Augusta. This is the State's most significant recreational fishing area, having 68% of the recorded effort, or an estimated 5.6 million fishing days during 2003-04 (Department of Fisheries, 2005a). By contrast, only 4% of the State's recreational fishing effort (an estimated 348 000 fishing days in 2003-04) occurred in the Gascoyne region, with most of the fishing effort concentrated in the peak season of April to August.
There have been advances in angler efficiency through improved technology and competing users have placed greater fishing pressure on limited fish resources. Along with these changes has been an increasing awareness among recreational fishers of the need to fish sustainably and a greater concern for the state of the environment. Community groups such as Recfishwest use fishing clinics and other means to foster an appreciation of measures that provide for the sustainability and quality of recreational fishing.
There is concern that trawling (dragging a net behind a boat) may cause a decline in species and ecological communities in marine environments. Concerns focus on the impact of trawling on benthic habitats (including those made up of algae, seagrass, sponges or sandy bottoms), fish and invertebrate assemblages, the mortality of threatened species such as turtles, and catch of juvenile and/or adult fish and invertebrate species of commercial or recreational importance. Trawling can be done with or without disturbance of sea floor biota and sediments by using equipment that either scrapes the sea floor or is suspended in the water column (depending on the type of animal being targeted). The Shark Bay prawn fishery is of concern in relation to its trawling impacts on non-target species (bycatch) and the ecological impacts to shallow sandy habitats. The Pilbara demersal finfish fishery has a trend of decreasing by catch and food chain effects, and has been consistently assessed as having a moderate impact on protected species and habitats (Department of Fisheries, 2005a). Concern has also been raised about impacts of the Abrolhos Islands scallop trawl (see 'Marine').
Preliminary findings of studies into the biodiversity impacts of trawling in Shark Bay, Exmouth Gulf and near Onslow (Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, in prep), showed that species richness and abundance in trawled areas were not significantly different to untrawled areas. However, some individual species showed higher abundance in untrawled areas indicating vulnerability, while other species showed a preference for the trawl grounds. Management actions are in place to maintain sustainable fisheries, so trawling occurs within a defined season, where a limited number of boat operators hold licences, and the annual area trawled is a small proportion of the total trawl ground. Recent improvements to net design also allow for unwanted bycatch animals (such as turtles and dolphins) to escape via windows.
Apart from putting pressure on fish stocks, recreational fishing may have environmental impacts if not carefully carried out. Discarded line and litter may entangle or harm wildlife. The incorrect use of four-wheel drive vehicles may damage coastal and riverbank areas. In addition, reef top harvesting for species such as abalone may result in trampling of reef organisms. The death of unwanted or undersized species can also be an issue for recreational fishers if they are unaware of correct handling and release techniques. Currently there is limited policy for assessing the ecologically sustainable development of predominantly recreational fisheries. This is problematic because although other industry sectors (such as State domestic fisheries and aquaculture) are assessed for ecological sustainability, the environmental impacts of recreational fisheries are not quantified.
Commercial fisheries are managed through restrictions on catching capacity (number of fishing boats, type of fishing gear used, areas where the gear can be used, closed seasons), size regulations (covering gear, catch and prohibition on the capture of breeding females) and caps on the maximum number of licences that can be issued. This type of management requires careful monitoring of fish stocks and adaptive management to ensure that the catch remains within the sustainable yield of the fishery. A high level of fisheries surveillance has contributed to the success of management practices in commercial and recreational fisheries. Assessments of the sustainable management of fisheries have been a priority since 2002.
The western rock lobster is the most valuable single species fishery in Australia and usually represents about 20% of the total value of Australia's fisheries (Department of Fisheries, 2004). The western rock lobster fishery is also one of the first fisheries in the world to be certified as ecologically sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council (2006). The Council is a global independent organisation that recognises well managed fisheries and improves consumer marketability of the product.
For most WA fisheries, formal management plans are in place to directly control the amount of fishing effort being applied to fish stocks, with the level of the catch taken providing a measure of the effectiveness of the management plan. Where the plan is operating effectively, the fishery industry's catch should fall within the projected target range. The target range allows for environmental variability where the rate of juvenile recruitment to stock can not be controlled by the management plan (Department of Fisheries, 2006).
In the past, fish resources have been shared mainly on an implicit basis, with no explicit setting of catch shares within an overall total allowable catch (or effort). Integrated fisheries management is a new approach being implemented in WA that considers aggregate effects of all fishing sectors. Integrated fisheries management involves (Department of Fisheries, 2006):
This approach, believed to be a world-first, follows the recommendations of the Integrated Fisheries Management Review Committee (2002). As the community's use and value of fish resources changes over time, reallocation mechanisms will be introduced to enable changes in catch allocation. Integrated fisheries management will be progressively phased in and is likely to take 10 years to bring the majority of WA fisheries under the new framework (Department of Fisheries, 2006).
There are a number of significant issues and trends to be addressed in the short to medium term to ensure the conservation and sustainable development of the State's fish resources and the protection of fish habitat into the future.
A growing and more affluent population is placing more pressure on the marine environment. Increased coastal residential development places pressure on inshore fish stocks as a result of increased recreational and commercial fishing pressures, a greater amount of pollutants being discharged via stormwater and treated sewerage outfalls, and increased habitat disturbance through boating activity and new infrastructure. Recreational fishing has grown over 200% in the past decade as the State's population and economy has expanded. Construction of marinas, ports and other coastal developments in sensitive marine environments can have dramatic impacts via dredging, toxicants and habitat destruction or modification.
Western Australia's fisheries industries are highly climate dependent, with recruitment and migration patterns of some fish species sensitive to climatic conditions. The productivity of many WA fisheries is influenced by the El Niņo Southern Oscillation, which in turn influences the Leeuwin Current. These fisheries could be affected if El Niņo becomes more prevalent (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2003). Coastal fisheries that are dependent on vulnerable coastal wetlands and estuaries as nursery grounds may be particularly impacted. Freshwater fisheries, such as marron and estuarine fisheries, are likely to be the most affected, particularly in areas where rainfall changes are expected (e.g. South West).
Pressures on fisheries are arising from conflicting resource requirements of different community and industry stakeholders, particularly in once-remote coastal areas that are now coming under increasing development pressure. The increased complexity and lack of integration of conservation and planning processes as they affect coastal fisheries is also complicating fisheries management. Aboriginal fishing rights and the development of the law in respect to Native Title is also contributing to uncertainty.
Illegal fishing has become an increasing problem for the sustainable management of fisheries in the State's North West, particularly for trocus and shark. In such remote parts of the State it is difficult for Department of Fisheries staff to protect fish stocks. At times members of the community, including Aboriginal communities, have been employed as part time marine rangers. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of interceptions and prosecutions of illegal fisherman.
Recreational fishing is likely to increase with the State's growing population, so there is an ongoing need to manage this effort to prevent stock collapse and ecosystem damage (compared to commercial fisheries where the total number of fishing licences is capped). Recreational fishing effort has been a significant factor in the collapse of fish stock. For example, fish stocks that are restricted to the inner gulfs of Shark Bay were subjected to significant recreational fishing pressure and now require special management arrangements. Detailed research identified that pink snapper stocks were over-exploited by recreational fishers in the early to mid 1990s. As a result a total prohibition on the take of pink snapper was introduced in the eastern gulf of Shark Bay between June 1998 and December 2002. Compliance with the ban and subsequent fishing regulations has allowed the fish population to rebuild. In 2003, for the first time in fisheries management in WA, a total allowable catch was set for each pink snapper stock/fishery area in Shark Bay. The recreational sector, which includes catches from charter vessels, was allocated 75% and the commercial sector 25% of the available catch in each management area. Lessons learned from the Shark Bay snapper fishery are now being applied at other locations in the State, such as Cockburn Sound, where fishing was recently closed to protect spawning stocks of pink snapper.
Ecologically sustainable development assessments: a requirement of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth) is for the Department of the Environment and Heritage to conduct assessments of ecologically sustainable practices in the management of a fishery, and evaluate responses to the issues identified in those assessments. The framework allows managers to demonstrate that ESD principles are being used and provides a way to judge the results. For example, before they can be granted an export licence, each fishing industry will have to show that their fishing operations and methods are not endangering any species or ecosystem.
Integrated Fisheries Management (IFM): the implementation of IFM in WA fisheries has progressed since its inception in 2004. A final allocation report has been prepared for the western rock lobster, and a final report for metropolitan abalone is expected in 2007. Focus will now turn to finfish resources over the next two to three years - in particular, the West Coast and Gascoyne demersal scalefish fisheries (especially for dhufish, baldchin groper and snapper). A 10 year plan for IFM is in progress that will ensure a long term program for the continued implementation of IFM.
State of the Fisheries reports: Annual 'State of the Fisheries' reports are prepared by the Department of Fisheries and have increasingly focused on broader ecosystem management. The reports summarise the outcomes of many departmental activities including management changes, compliance work, and research to assess stock levels, monitor breeding stock and undertake environmental assessments.
Community programs: Fishing industry involvement in non-government organisation programs, particularly the Marine Stewardship Council certification of the western rock lobster fishery and the various programs of Oceanwatch and Seanet (mitigating non-target species, including protected species).
Codes of conduct: Industry-initiated codes of conduct, such as Western Rock Lobster Managed Fishery Code of Practice for Reducing Whale Entanglements (Western Rock Lobster Council Inc., c. 2005), Northern Shark Industry Association Industry Code of Practice for Responsible Fishing (Bevilacqua & Diver, n.d.), South Coast Purse Seine Code of Practice (Ocean Watch & SeaNet, 2005b), Lake Argyle handling manual (Bevilacqua, c. 2005) and Lake Argyle Bycatch Action Plan (Ocean Watch and & SeaNet, 2005a).
Raising awareness: Programs are in place to increase awareness among recreational fishers of fishing practices that are sustainable and environmentally responsible. For example, fishing clinics by Recfishwest, Volunteer Fisheries Liaison Officer program (Department of Fisheries); the promotion of release weights to return fish with inflated swim-bladders to deep water to reduce trauma and incidental mortality (Department of Fisheries, Recfishwest and Australian National Sports Fishing Association); and to research recreational fishing practice and impacts (Department of Fisheries and Murdoch University).
Aboriginal fishing strategy: was developed with four main elements (Franklyn, 2003) including: consultative and joint management mechanisms to involve Aboriginal people in the management of fish resources; employment and training opportunities for people in natural resource management and compliance, particularly in regional areas; economic development initiatives linked to the State's soon to-be released Indigenous economic development strategy (which provide opportunities for Aboriginal people to access commercial fishing authorisations through open market processes); and recognition of continuing customary fishing rights and responsibilities (including traditional ownership of waters) within fisheries legislation and policy. National principles that recognise the cultural significance of fishing to Aboriginal people have recently been formally endorsed by the Commonwealth Government, the majority of state and territory governments, the Australian Seafood Industry Council, Recfish Australia and peak Aboriginal representative bodies. These national principles support increased participation by Aboriginal people in the protection, sharing and use of fish resources and are consistent with the State's draft Aboriginal Fishing Strategy.
Ecologically sustainable development certification for export fisheries under the Commonwealth Government's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 ensures that environmental issues are at the forefront of fisheries management. The process will set a benchmark for the management of all fisheries, although there is currently no formal requirement or strong urgency to assess non-export and recreational fisheries and aquaculture. Sharing of fish stocks between sectors will continue to be an important issue requiring careful management while recognising the requirements of commercial, and recreational sectors and Aboriginal people. Good environmental management of fisheries will require an increased research focus on the environmental and ecological impacts of fishing, and the value of fish habitats, including the identification of habitats of critical importance in the life cycle of fishes. Further aquaculture development in the State will require improved consideration of coastal planning and pollution issues. Remote marine and coastal areas of the State are coming under increased pressure from a range of development pressures and other impacts, such as illegal foreign fishing.
9.14 Continue to implement ecologically sustainable development, including the completion of accreditation of all Western Australian fisheries through the Department of Environment and Heritage process, and the extension of the assessment process to minor and low value fisheries, recreational fisheries and aquaculture.
9.15 Progress the introduction of Integrated Fisheries Management to allow the integrated management of critical Western Australian commercial and recreational fisheries.
9.16 Increase the focus on ecosystem management of marine resources.
The Exmouth Gulf prawn fishery is confined within the waters of Exmouth Gulf, with the prawn nursery grounds, spawning areas and trawl grounds all within the gulf. The fishery has been operating since 1963 and is the second largest trawl fishery in the State with 13 boats fishing during 2003. The fishery targets western king prawns, brown tiger prawns, endeavour prawns and variable quantities (according to season) of banana prawns. The fishery is managed using a variety of controls to limit fishing effort, including regulations that specify fishing gear that can be used in the fishery.
An issue of concern in many prawn trawl fisheries around the world is the incidence of bycatch of unwanted fish species and the capture of large animals such as turtles, sharks and rays. Typically, in tropical demersal trawl fisheries, more than 10 kg of unwanted fish are trawled for every 1 kg of the target prawns. In the Exmouth prawn fishery a bycatch action plan has been successfully implemented which has resulted in the low rate of bycatch in the fishery today.
In 1999 the industry, in association with Fisheries WA (now the Department of Fisheries), commenced voluntary trials of grids fitted into the trawl nets to allow any turtles entering the nets to escape (termed turtle exclusion devices). A wide variety of turtle exclusion devices were trialled over two years and then these devices were made mandatory within the fishery. The introduction of turtle exclusion devices to the fishery has virtually eliminated the capture of turtles. However, work is continuing to improve the fishery's performance with respect to bycatch. Secondary bycatch-reduction devices (fish-exclusion devices designed to reduce the catch of unwanted fish) such as square mesh panels have been trialled prior to adoption within the fishery. In addition, many of the boats operating in the fishery have installed 'hopper' sorting tables. With this arrangement the catch is dumped from the cod end of the net into a well of flowing seawater. The catch is then removed from the well on a moving conveyor belt and sorted. This reduces the amount of time bycatch species spend out of water and increases survival.
The success of the various turtle-exclusion and fish-exclusion device designs has been monitored through the use of voluntary logbooks and through an observer program. The efforts made by industry to address the environmental impact of the fishery have paid off. The fishery has achieved Commonwealth ecologically sustainable development accreditation, as well as certification for export to the United States.
