7.2 Transport

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Priority Rating: 3

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Description

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Transport is a fundamental component of human settlements that allows movement of people (travel) and goods (freight) from one place to another. Modern transport systems are dependent on a network of infrastructure (such as footpaths, cycleways, roads, rail lines, ports and airports). The level of demand for transport reflects the scale, design and distribution of activities that require people or goods to be moved.

Transport systems impact the environment in many ways including through land clearing for development of transport infrastructure; atmospheric pollution from vehicle exhaust emissions; the extraction, transport and combustion of fuels (including petroleum and gas); and generation of wastes. Land used for roads, railways and other transport infrastructure can result in the loss or degradation of native vegetation, wetlands or other ecosystems, and contributes to landscape fragmentation. Motor vehicles are responsible for a large number of deaths and injuries to native animals each year and facilitate greater spread of feral animals and weeds. Motor vehicle use can also generate noise pollution and affect water quality through road runoff.

Objectives

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Reduce the environmental impacts of transport in WA by:

• Reducing total vehicle kilometres travelled;
• Increasing the relative use of public transport and other alternative forms of transport;
• Reducing total vehicle emissions; and
• Reducing the total amount of fossil fuel used for transport.

Condition

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Motor vehicles dominate the State's transport system, both for travel and freight. Perth is one of the most car-dependent cities in the world (Western Australian Planning Commission, 2004). The city also has the highest road length per capita of any capital city in Australia, at around 10.7 m/capita (Kenworthy et al., cited in Newman & Kenworthy, 1999). Many environmental impacts arise from this mode and pattern of transport.

Approximately 430 000 hectares of land is occupied by roads and rail networks in WA. While this area is small compared to the size of the State, it affects other potential land uses and needs. Construction of roads and other transport infrastructure involves major disturbances to native vegetation and wildlife habitats, as this infrastructure often fragments landscapes and ecosystems. In the Perth region, exhaust emissions from motor vehicles contribute significantly to several other air quality issues, including photochemical smog, particulates, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide.

Indicator HS6: Motor vehicle emissions and other waste products.

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Exhaust from motor vehicles is the largest source of carbon monoxide (80%) and oxides of nitrogen (42%) in the Perth metropolitan area (Department of Environmental Protection, 2002). Motor vehicle emissions are also one of the principle sources of volatile organic compounds in the Perth airshed. It is estimated that 29 331 tonnes of oxides of nitrogen were emitted by motor vehicles in the Perth airshed during 1998-99, an increase of 22% since 1992-93 (Figure HS2.1). The increase in oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide and particulates (PM₁₀) emissions from motor vehicles over this period is largely due to an increase in the number of vehicles and vehicle kilometres travelled (Department of Environmental Protection, 2002). Lead emissions from motor vehicles have decreased dramatically since legislation was enacted in 1986, requiring all new motor vehicles to run on unleaded petrol. The decreases in emissions of carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds between 1992-93 and 1998-99 are probably a result of more stringent emission controls and introduction of new motor vehicle technology (Department of Environmental Protection, 2002). Information on emissions from motor vehicles outside the Perth metropolitan region is not collected.

Figure HS2.1: Percentage change in emissions of atmospheric pollutants from motor vehicles in the Perth airshed, 1992-1999.

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Data source: Department of Environmental Protection (2002). Note: NO_x = oxides of nitrogen, CO = carbon monoxide, SO₂ = sulfur dioxide, PM₁₀ = inhalable particles (coarse fraction; 10 micrometres and smaller), total VOCs = total volatile organic compounds.

Motor vehicles produce liquid and solid wastes from day-to-day running and maintenance, and through the replacement and repair of vehicle parts. For example, 1.5 million passenger vehicle tyres are sold in WA annually: approximately 650 000 tyres are sent to landfill and 30 000 are retreaded each year. Used tyres also end up in rural landfills, mine site tips and at illegal dumping sites (Department of Environment, 2005). Other waste products generated from day-to-day vehicle use are poorly documented.

Indicator HS7: Greenhouse gas emissions from transport.

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Transport contributes to approximately 13% of WA's greenhouse gas emissions, most of which are from the combustion of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport in WA increased 33% between 1990 and 2004, from 6.6 million tonnes (Mt) to 8.8 Mt. This is due to increased fuel consumption associated with increased transport activity and changes in the emissions intensity (amount of greenhouse gases generated per energy unit) over this period. The emissions intensity of passenger vehicles in Australia has increased since 1990 due to the increased proportion of vehicles equipped with pollution control technology, which produces more nitrous oxide per unit of fuel used (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2006). Road transport generates 90% of transport emissions, while civil aviation contributes 8%, navigation 1%, and rail 1%.

Indicator HS8: Transport energy consumption.

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Transport currently represents around 20% of all energy consumed in WA, with most supplied by oil, including liquid petroleum gas (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 2005). The rate of energy use has stabilised in recent years while the proportion used by various transport modes has remained similar (Figure HS2.2). In 2004-05 total transport energy use was 165.7 petajoules (PJ), of which nearly 72% was from road transport.

The average fuel efficiency of the Australian vehicle fleet has decreased slightly (about 10%) the since the 1970s (Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics, 2002). While technology developments have resulted in vehicle engines becoming even more fuel efficient, the gains made have been partly offset by demand for bigger and more powerful cars, leading to only slightly lower fuel use levels per car (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001c). 

Figure HS2.2: Transport energy consumption by transport mode for Western Australia, 1986-87 to 2004-05.

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Data source: Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (2005). Note: One petajoule = one million gigajoules or one billion joules.

Pressures

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The overwhelming trend in WA over the last 30 years has been the increasing dominance of the motor vehicle for both people and freight movement. Development across the Perth metropolitan region since the late 1950s has been directed by a land use planning philosophy that promoted segregated uses and low density residential, commercial and industrial development. Consequently, Perth has developed a high level of dependence on the private motor vehicle. Approximately 70% of Perth's new residential development still occurs at or beyond the boundaries of currently developed areas. Expansion in these locations, with limited services and little or no local employment exacerbates vehicle dependence.

Western Australia's vast rural and remote areas are also highly dependent on road transport for supply of goods and movement of people. The State's rail network is predominantly used for transporting bulk freight, such as minerals and grains for export. The large distances between some settlements and Perth mean that a large amount of transport energy is required to supply goods to remote settlements. Additionally, the increasing cost-effectiveness of air travel has led to the growth of a 'fly-in fly-out' workforce, particularly in the resources sector (Western Australian Planning Commission, 2005a).

Indicator HS9: Total vehicle kilometres travelled.

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'Vehicle kilometres travelled' is a measure of the total distance travelled by motor vehicles, which is one of the main factors influencing vehicle-based air pollution and energy consumption. The total number of vehicle kilometres travelled in WA has increased from 17.7 billion in 1998 to 21.6 billion in 2005 (Figure HS2.3). Just over 75% of vehicle kilometres travelled in 2005 were by passenger vehicles.

The total daily vehicle kilometres travelled in Perth has increased by around 50% since 1991 (approximately 26 million) to 37 million in 2004 (Department of Transport, Main Roads Western Australia, Ministry for Planning, Fremantle Port Authority, Westrail & Metrobus, 1995; Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005d). This is due mostly to increase in population, vehicle ownership and expansion of the metropolitan area over this time.

Figure HS2.3: Vehicle kilometres travelled in Western Australia, by vehicle type 1998-2005.

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Data source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2001c, 2003c, 2004e, 2005d & 2006f).

Indicator HS10: Vehicle kilometres travelled per capita

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Western Australians have the third highest average rate of vehicle use per capita after Victorians and Tasmanians (Figure HS2.4). Personal rates of vehicle use are high in WA due to the State's vast size, typically low density urban development and high dependence on motor vehicles for personal mobility and freight movement in both metropolitan and rural areas.

The average time spent travelling is similar across the Perth metropolitan region (60 to 70 minutes per day) and has remained relatively constant over the past 30 years. However, the average distance travelled per day differs markedly between residents in inner and outer suburbs of Perth. In inner city areas like Fremantle or the Town of Vincent, residents travel about 25-27 km per day, while in outer areas like Joondalup or Armadale, locals cover an average distance of 36-37 km (Montgomery & Saunders, 2005).

Figure HS2.4: Total vehicle kilometres travelled per capita in Australia and its states and territories, 2005.

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Data source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006f).

Indicator HS11: Vehicle ownership.

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The level of vehicle ownership in WA has been steadily increasing over the past 30 years (Figure HS2.5). While Western Australians have the third highest rate of vehicle use, they have the highest rate of vehicle ownership in Australia. In March 2006 there were 784 vehicles registered in WA per 1000 population, of which 75% were passenger vehicles (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006e). Of the 1.2 million passenger vehicles registered in WA in 2006, 77% were registered in Perth, which has the highest rate of vehicle ownership of all capital cities in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004d). Perth also has the highest rate of ownership of passenger vehicles in Western Australia (Figure HS2.6). The Upper Great Southern, Midlands and Lower Great Southern areas have the highest rates of vehicle ownership in WA, partly because of the high numbers of trucks and light commercial vehicles in these areas.

Figure HS2.5: Number of registered vehicles in Western Australia per 1000 of population, 1996-2006.

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Data source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2001b, 2002b, 2003b, 2004d, 2005c & 2006d).

Figure HS2.6: Average number of vehicles per 1000 of population in Western Australia, by statistical division, 2005.

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Data source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2004d & 2005c). Note: UGS = Upper Great Southern; LGS = Lower Great Southern; SE = South East; SW = South West.

Indicator HS12: Percentage share of transport travel modes.

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Travel in the Perth metropolitan region is about 3.1 trips per person per weekday (Data Analysis Australia, unpublished) equating to over 4.4 million personal trips daily. Most trips (80%) are by car, with 62% as driver and 18% as passenger (Figure HS2.7). Reliance on private cars rises to above 90% of all trips in some newer suburbs on the urban fringe of the Perth metropolitan area. Alternative forms of transport such as walking, cycling and public transport represent a combined 18% of all trips.

Figure HS2.7: Percentage share of each transport mode in the Perth metropolitan region, 2003.

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Data source: Data Analysis Australia.

The total amount of public transport patronage in Perth has been increasing over the past 20 years, largely due to growth in population (Figure HS2.8). However, the mode shares of public transport, walking and cycling, have decreased over this period, while car mode share has increased (Data Analysis Australia, unpublished). Urban development in the northern suburbs is expanding faster than investment in rail infrastructure, leaving new suburbs without planned rail services. Without adequate rail services, residents tend to purchase additional motor vehicles, cementing in place long-term car dependence.

Figure HS2.8: Transperth public transport patronage - boardings and journeys, 1985-86 to 2004-05.

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Data source: Public Transport Authority. Note: System journeys are complete journeys from place of departure to destination and may involve one or more boardings.

Indicator HS13: Air passenger kilometres travelled.

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Air travel is the second largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions from transport (8%) in the State after road transport. The total number of revenue passenger kilometres for domestic and regional airlines in WA has nearly doubled since 1995 to 11.3 billion (Figure HS2.9). 'Revenue passenger kilometres' are calculated by multiplying the number of fare paying passengers travelling on each flight by the distance in kilometres between ports. The increasing prevalence of 'fly-in fly-out' mining operations coinciding with the resources boom has contributed to an increase in regional air travel in WA.

Figure HS2.9: Revenue passenger kilometres (RPK) for domestic and regional airlines in Western Australia,1995-2004.

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Data source: Department of Transport and Regional Services.

Indicator HS14: Freight kilometres travelled.

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Comprehensive data on freight movements supplying WA settlements was unavailable. 

Freight is moved over vast distances to service remote settlements and transport agricultural, mineral and petroleum products for export or processing. Rail and sea are the dominant transport modes for bulk freight originating in WA, representing 45% and 35%, respectively (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002a). 

Freight into and around WA is dominated by road transport, and the remoteness of many settlements in the State means this is an energy-intensive activity. A study of the Pilbara region identified between 585 000 and 660 000 tonnes moved to the area by road (mostly from Perth) and around 34 000 tonnes moved by sea (Sinclair Knight Merz, 2004). Most represents the transport of minerals to Pilbara ports for export, but also includes goods supplied to the region. 

The small volumes of non-bulk freight to and from regional centres, and within virtually all urban areas in the State, make rail an inefficient transport mode. Virtually all freight movement and goods delivery within Perth occurs by road. It is estimated that approximately 50 to 60 Mt of freight per annum is transported in the metropolitan region, including 22.4 Mt by sea (Minister for Planning and Infrastructure, 2002).

Current responses

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Transport strategy: The Perth Metropolitan Transport Strategy (Department of Transport, Main Roads Western Australia, Ministry for Planning, Fremantle Port Authority, Westrail & Metrobus, 1995) sets a target for reducing car-as-driver trips by 35% over the 30 years to 2029. As part of the strategy, the State Government has established the TravelSmart program, which encourages behaviour shifts from car trips to alternative forms of travel, including public transport, walking and cycling.

Freight network strategy: The Metro Freight Network Strategy is targeting an increase in rail movement of import and export freight containers to and from the Port of Fremantle, from 10% (approximately) at present to 30% by 2013 (Department for Planning and Infrastructure, 2006).

Network city: The State Government, in consultation with the community, has prepared Network City: Community Planning Strategy for Perth and Peel (Western Australian Planning Commission, 2004). The strategy outlines actions to address transport problems in Perth and Peel, including reducing car dependence, increasing public transport use and better aligning land use and transport. A key element of the strategy is to support expansion of the public transport network by developing a network of activity centres connected by transport corridors.

Review of strategic planning and processes: The Department for Planning and Infrastructure is undertaking a review of strategic planning and processes to guide future growth and urban development in the metropolitan area toward more sustainable outcomes. This includes revision of Development Control Policy 1.6: Planning to Support Transit Use and Transit Oriented Development (Western Australian Planning Commission, 2006).

Strategic urban centres: Construction of the South West Metropolitan Railway and development of strategic urban centres in Perth's southern suburbs aims to increase the share of journeys made by public transport and reduce car dependence in this rapidly growing sector of the Perth metropolitan area, and in the adjacent Peel region.

Implications

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The distribution of settlements in WA, existing transport networks, urban form and the State's vast size mean the population will remain dependent on fossil fuels and road transport into the foreseeable future. Air quality issues are likely to become exacerbated in Perth and possibly other major regional centres. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport will increase. Expansion of the existing road network will further impact native vegetation, wetlands and contribute to isolation of many ecological communities and wildlife. 

Suggested responses

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7.10 Develop and implement a comprehensive State Transport Strategy that considers guidelines for urban design and development to reduce motor vehicle dependence, and the establishment of targets for vehicle kilometres travelled and mode share. 

7.11 Encourage the Commonwealth government to introduce mandatory minimum fuel efficiency standards for all vehicles.

7.12 Continue to support and expand transport and travel behaviour change programs including TravelSmart.