State of the Environment Report 2007
Population growth and consumption are fundamental drivers of human environmental impacts. Humans have changed the Earth's ecosystems more rapidly and extensively in the past 50 years than in any other period of human history. This is mostly due to the ever growing human demand for natural resources such as energy, food, water and wood. These changes have degraded almost two-thirds of the ecosystems on which humanity depends and have resulted in a largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Humans are increasingly reducing the capacity of the Earth to maintain the ecosystem services that are essential to life such as water filtration and purification, photosynthesis, climate regulation, and waste absorption and breakdown.
The world's population doubled between 1960 and 2000 to 6 billion people and continues to grow, currently at around 1.2% per annum. Despite a continuing decline in fertility levels, the global population is expected (under a medium-growth scenario) to reach 9 billion by 2050. In the same period (1960-2000) the global economy increased six-fold, resulting in a doubling or more of water use, food production and wood harvests (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).
While most developed nations have low and declining population growth, their personal consumption rates continue to increase, placing growing demands on the world's natural resources. Nations in transition to more industrialised economies are creating a new and rapidly increasing consumer class, comprising 1.7 billion people and it is projected this will lead to greatly increased global demand for natural resources (United Nations Population Fund, 2004). In contrast, nations in sub-Saharan Africa have the fastest rates of population growth but suffer some of the world's worst poverty, a combination which can lead to the degradation of their local environments (United Nations Population Fund, 2004). The disparate consumption between rich and poor nations remains a key environmental concern. Around 86% of global private consumption expenditure is accounted for by 20% of the world's population who live in the highest income countries (United Nations Population Fund, 2001).
In WA, population growth and distribution, and patterns of consumption, are drivers of many environmental pressures in the State, including loss of biodiversity, air pollution, impacts on water quality and waste generation. Reducing, or at least stabilising, global population growth and consumption is a key requirement for sustainability and reducing environmental degradation from human activities.
Western Australia's population has grown steadily since the 1940s, reaching two million in January 2005 (Figure FP1.1). The average population growth rate in WA over the past decade was 1.7% and in 2005-06 it peaked at 2%. Over this period the growth rate was consistently higher than the national average and represents a doubling time for WA's population of approximately 41 years compared to 54 years for Australia as a whole. The population growth rate for WA is also higher than most developed and some developing nations.
![Figure FP1.1: Population growth in Western Australia, by total and percentage of Australia’s growth, 1950–2006. [Data source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006).]](/site/files/images/Figure-FP1.1_Large.jpg)
There are three major sources of growth of WA's population: natural increase (births minus deaths), net overseas migration and net interstate migration. Net migration is the difference between immigration (arriving) and emigration (leaving). In the past decade, net overseas migration has overtaken natural increase as the largest contributor to population growth in the State. Historically, WA's high rates of population growth have been associated with periods of high economic growth and development. During these periods, including the current resource development boom, both overseas and interstate migration tend to increase in response to an increased demand for labour.
Western Australia's population is projected to grow by 41%, or approximately 800 000, by 2031. If present policy settings are maintained, most of this growth will occur in the Perth, Peel and South West regions, with population in the Peel region projected to double by 2031. Perth's population is projected to reach over two million by this date. The growth in population will increase demand for land, energy and water, and will lead to more waste generation and pollution.
A nation's well being is broadly equivalent to its per capita rate of consumption. Australia has a relatively high standard of living according to the United Nations Human Development Index, when compared to other countries (United Nations Development Programme, 2005). The index is based on three dimensions of human development: standard of living, life expectancy and education. The ecological footprint is a tool used to measure the land area required to support consumption levels of natural resources by the average citizen. There is a fairly close correlation between a nation's well being and its ecological footprint; the higher the standard of living, the greater the ecological footprint (Figure FP1.2).
The average Australian currently requires about seven 'global hectares' per person to support their consumption, less than US and Canadian citizens, but more than those of the United Kingdom, Russia, China and Japan. In comparison, the biologically productive land available per person globally is less than two global hectares (Global Footprint Network, 2006). Global hectares do not represent actual land areas but rather standardised values that are adjusted to reflect the differing productivities of different nations, which enable comparison between nations.
The global ecological footprint is currently estimated to exceed the Earth's carrying capacity by 20%. This means that we are living beyond our planet's means and that some renewable natural resources are being harvested at rates higher than they can be replenished.
![Figure FP1.2: Human welfare and ecological footprint of nations. [Data source: Global Footprint Network (2006); United Nations Development Programme (2006).]](/site/files/images/Figure-FP1.2_Large.jpg)
Consumption in WA is contributing significantly to global environmental pressure. Western Australia's consumption patterns have changed in recent decades and it now has one of the highest per capita rates of consumption in the world. There are several reasons for this. Most importantly, the State's economy is heavily based on the use of natural resources - namely mining and agriculture - requiring large inputs of water and energy. In addition, Western Australians have high standards of living and associated high personal consumption rates.
In 2001 the ecological footprint of the average WA citizen was 14.5 hectares. This estimate is much larger than the estimated seven global hectares required by the average Australian because it is based on actual land area rather than standardised global hectares. It includes land used overseas and interstate to produce goods exported to WA as well as land used within the State to produce goods for local consumption. Approximately 80% of the WA ecological footprint is land that is used to produce consumed resources. The remainder is classified as 'emissions land', which is the amount of land required to sequester carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. When divided into broad consumption types, land use associated with food makes up 46% of the State's ecological footprint (Figure FP1.3). The food component represents a large proportion of the ecological footprint because of the agricultural inputs to the food production. Agriculture uses large amounts of land, particularly in the production of crops and livestock. In WA, this input to the ecological footprint is very high because large areas of land are used for grazing livestock at very low densities. The food footprint also includes land required for processing, transport and disposal. Approximately one-third of WA's ecological footprint is land used to produce goods imported from interstate and overseas.
Food, housing and transport are three consumption areas that have the greatest impact on the WA's environment (e.g. through air pollution, land clearing/loss of biodiversity, greenhouse gas emissions and waste generation), place pressure on demands for natural resources (e.g. water and energy) and contribute indirectly to other environmental issues in the production of goods and use of services (e.g. land salinisation, eutrophication and erosion). While these consumption areas can be considered fundamental to provision of the basic necessities for life, they are no longer simply at levels of need, but rather have grown increasingly to meet the wants of individuals.
With respect to housing, the typical house size in WA has more than doubled over the past 50 years, from 110 m2 in the 1950s to 230 m2 in 2000 (Office of Policy and Planning, 2000). This is due to larger and more bedrooms, bathrooms and additional rooms such as games rooms. Larger dwellings use more natural resources in their construction, such as bricks, wood, metals, water and energy. Household occupancy has also decreased over the same period (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005).
Per capita residential energy consumption in WA has risen over the past two decades from 15.5 gigajoules (Gj) per capita in 1984-85, to 17.2 Gj in 2004-05 (see 'Energy use in settlements'). The increase in household energy use over this period reflects the increasing number and use of labour saving appliances (e.g. computers, power tools, kitchen appliances), lifestyle appliances (e.g. mobile phones, LCD and plasma televisions, compact audio devices), and heating and air-conditioning systems. Total residential energy consumption has increased by 60% over the same period to 34.2 petajoules due to population growth and increasing rates of personal consumption.
Unlike energy consumption, water use per capita is showing signs of stabilising (see 'Water use in settlements'). Both total and per capita residential water use have declined since 2001. This trend can be attributed to the introduction of a State Water Strategy with a targeted water conservation campaign and increased media focus on water shortages.
Food demand is proportional to population. In 2000, each Australian is estimated to have consumed around 695 kg of food and 227 litres of beverages per year (Australian Bureau of Statistics, cited in Australian Food & Grocery Council, 2003). It is likely that the amount of food consumed per capita has changed little in recent times, but calorie intake has increased. Western Australians are consuming more food products from overseas and interstate, and consumer demand is driving year-round production of seasonal produce and exotic local produce. Imported seafood products now provide more than 60% of the market in Australia, while most of WA fisheries production is exported to overseas or interstate markets (CSIRO, 2003; Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 2004). The trend towards more processed (e.g. confectionery and snack foods) and 'ready-to-eat' (e.g. take-away and packaged meals) foods is also growing. Nutrition surveys show that energy, protein and carbohydrate intakes of WA children and adolescents increased between 1985 and 2003 (Glasson et al., 2004). The trends toward increased consumption of processed foods, imported foods and out-of-season produce has environmental implications from greater inputs of energy, water and materials (e.g. packaging) used in production, manufacturing, transport, consumption and/or disposal. A survey undertaken by the Australian Food and Grocery Council in 2003 found that Australia wastes about 2.2 million tonnes of food annually, or 13% of total food consumed (Australian Food and Grocery Council, 2003). This equates to the annual food consumption of nearly 3.2 million Australians.
Transport patterns have environmental consequences including land clearing for transport infrastructure, consumption of fossil fuels, materials used (metals, plastics, rubber) and exhaust emissions (see 'Transport'). Vehicle ownership in WA is the highest in Australia. In 2004, the total number of vehicles was 749 per 1000, representing a 10% increase in vehicle ownership since 1996. Passenger vehicles make up the majority of these (568 per 1000). Since 1998, vehicle kilometres travelled has increased by 10% to 7900 kilometres per capita, reflecting continuing urban development of Perth and parts of the South West.
Western Australia is heavily dependent on the use of natural resources to sustain economic growth, with a major emphasis on export-oriented industry: over 70% of land used and carbon dioxide emissions in WA are associated with the production of exports. Measuring trends in resource use arising from economic activity is as important as monitoring personal rates of consumption in understanding the environmental consequences of consumption in WA. Macroeconomic models of resource use, such as materials flow analysis and the CSIRO's 'stocks and flows model' can provide overall measures of resource consumption. They enable understanding of the movement of natural resources through the economy and how they affect the environment. While a scoping report for a WA 'stocks and flows model' has been prepared, a model has not yet been developed. Despite this some trends are apparent.
Resource use arising from economic activity in WA has been steadily increasing in recent years. Total WA water use has grown from around 1800 gigalitres (GL) in 1998 to around 2400 GL in 2005. Mining and irrigated agriculture are responsible for nearly two-thirds of water consumption in WA and are likely to be responsible for much of the growth in water use over this period. The aggregate energy intensity (energy use per dollar of gross state product) of the WA economy decreased between 1998 and 2005, but total primary energy use grew at an average rate of 4.6% per annum over this period, and has been consistently higher than the national average. Much of this growth is due to steady economic activity and a structural shift towards more energy-intensive industries (Tedesco & Thorpe, 2003). The mining and petroleum sector in particular is experiencing rapid growth and projections indicate that sector output is likely to grow by 50-75% over the next decade (Chamber of Minerals and Energy, 2005).
Population policy is a complex and contentious topic for any society to address. Some argue that we need a much lower population than we have now and others argue that we need a considerably larger population. The Commonwealth Government is responsible for population policy, with most strategies directed at control of immigration and births. The State Sustainability Strategy (Government of Western Australia, 2003) recognises that population growth should be promoted in areas where there is a real social and economic disadvantage (in many rural and regional areas), and that growth should be redefined in areas where further development is a threat to sustainability, such as Perth and many South West coastal towns. However, this approach is yet to be adopted in WA's planning system.
Current consumption levels are influenced by a combination of cultural and social factors, economic drivers and technology. Embedded in conventional economics is the perceived view that human wellbeing is tied to economic growth and consumption (Rees, 2002). Economic growth refers to the expansion of the volume of goods and services produced by a country. It is typically measured by the annual rate of increase of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - the value of goods and services produced each year. Economic growth has the potential to solve many problems faced by individuals, communities and countries. However, the endless pursuit of continued economic growth is also leading to exacerbation of environmental problems (e.g. growth in greenhouse gas emissions). There are many environmental initiatives that, after years of debate, are yet to be implemented for fear that they will reduce economic growth (e.g. the Kyoto Protocol, carbon trading, true pricing of water, halting land clearing). Strong economic growth remains the current dominant political and economic driver in WA and is likely to continue increasing consumption of the State's natural resources.
Cultural trends have a significant influence on personal levels of consumption. In Australia our standard of living is often defined by material wealth, which drives increased demand for consumer products (e.g. mobile phones, LCD and plasma televisions, air conditioners, computers, home appliances, four wheel drive vehicles). Consumer goods play a symbolic role in our lives, in shaping our personal identities and in communicating group identity (Jackson & Michaelis, 2003). Marketing now plays a major role in defining consumer desires and has contributed significantly to the development of a consumerist society. Other factors influencing personal levels of consumption include the trend towards desire for convenience and keeping up with the pace of technology. Cultural shifts and changes to economic theory are required to solve many of these inherent consumer-related problems.
Western Australian State Sustainability Strategy: was released by the State Government in 2003. The strategy outlines a blueprint for sustainable development in WA and contains a number of actions to manage the environmental impacts of WA's population and its use of natural resources. The strategy established two important and relevant targets aimed at reducing consumption in WA:
As WA continues to grow in population and the economy expands, demand for its natural resources (e.g. minerals, water, energy) will also rise: many of these resources are already under pressure from existing human activities (see 'Towards Sustainability'). The flow-on effects of increased use of natural resources are not easily measured. Aspects of natural resource use have hidden environmental and economic costs: the natural environment supports the economy in providing many ecosystem services which are not readily recognised, and for which no market price has been determined or considered. Few of these ecosystem services have been given an accurate economic value (Prime Minister's Science Engineering and Innovation Council, 2002).
While it is difficult to value intangible or nonmarket assets like ecosystem services, they cannot be discounted or ignored in the long term. For example, if a commercial project of high economic value utilises valuable environmental resources, damages an ecosystem or biodiversity, or has a detrimental impact on the wellbeing of a nearby community (through noise, pollution or infrastructure damage), it clearly has an economic cost. As part of implementing best practice environmental management, such 'hidden costs' should be included as components of the total economic value of commercial projects (Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, 1996).
Ecological systems usually have a buffering capacity to absorb pressures up to a threshold level, beyond which degradation occurs. However, environmental impacts are often cumulative, difficult to reverse, may only become apparent years or decades after the inducing pressure has occurred, and often extend beyond the natural environment to adversely affect social structures and the wellbeing of human societies. This highlights the fact that the WA society and economy is dependent on the prudent management of the environment and the sustainable use of its natural resources.
1.1 Implement the State Sustainability Strategy. Released in 2003, there is yet to be public reporting on its implementation. The State Government needs to remain committed to the strategy's implementation and a five year review of progress is warranted.
1.2 Develop tools to apply total economic value to future development proposals: the value of non-market (including environmental) services should be more rigorously included in future decision making in the pursuit of sustainability. Accounting for total economic value is needed to provide WA with improved environmental outcomes.
1.3 Adopt a plan to stabilise the State's ecological footprint, including measuring and reporting on a regular basis.
